Telephone and Telephone System
Transmission
Development of long-distance transmission
From single-wire to two-wire circuits
As the distances between telephone instruments began to increase beyond those served by local exchange offices, a number of technical problems arose that had not been experienced in earlier telegraph systems. The principal difference between telegraph systems and the telephone system was that the frequencies of the signals carried by telephone lines were as much as 30 times greater than those of telegraph signals. The first telephone lines employed the same type of outdoor circuits as telegraph lines—namely, a single noninsulated iron or steel wire supported by wooden poles with glass insulators. Since electric signals require two wires, the second “wire” was a ground return through the earth. Unfortunately, the use of a single wire made the telephone circuit extremely susceptible to interference by other signals. This problem was addressed by the use of a two-wire, or “metallic,” circuit; the first demonstration of such a system occurred in 1881 on a telephone line between Providence, R.I., and Boston.
Even with the two-wire system, it soon became apparent that telephone signals could be transmitted only a fraction of the distance of telegraph signals, owing to the greater attenuation in iron and steel of the higher frequencies of telephone signals. Several individuals noted that copper wire greatly improved the situation, but manufacturing techniques produced brittle wire that was not self-supporting over the spans between poles. The problem was solved in 1877 with the invention of hard-drawn copper wire. In 1884 the first test of hard-drawn copper wire for long-distance telephone service was conducted between New York City and Boston.
Problems of interference and attenuation
Two-wire copper circuits did not solve all the problems of long-distance telephony, however. As the number of lines grew, interference (or cross talk) from adjacent lines on the same crossarm of the telephone pole became significant. It was found that transposing the wires by twisting them at specified intervals canceled the cross talk. Another major problem was caused by distance: over the lengths of long-distance lines, even the two-wire copper circuit attenuated the telephone signal significantly. In a series of theoretical papers published in book form in 1892, Oliver Heaviside, an English physicist, developed the theory behind the transmission of signals over two-wire circuits. In the United States, Michael I. Pupin of Columbia University in New York City and George A. Campbell of AT&T both read Heaviside's papers and realized that introducing inductive coils (loading coils) at regular intervals along the length of the telephone line could significantly reduce the attenuation of signals within the voice band (i.e., at frequencies less than 3.5 kilohertz). Both Campbell and Pupin applied for a patent on the concept of loading coils; after extended patent interference proceedings, the patent was finally awarded to Pupin in 1904. The first long-distance application of loading coils occurred in 1900, over a 40-kilometre circuit in Boston. It was followed later that year by a test over a 1,000-kilometre circuit. By 1925 approximately 1.25 million loading coils were in use over 3 million kilometres of wire circuits.
Even with the use of loading coils, telephone communication across countries as large as the United States was not possible without some form of amplification. A mechanical amplifier, which made use of an electromagnet receiver and a carbon transmitter, was installed in a commercial circuit between New York City and Chicago in 1904, but it was not until the patenting of the vacuum tube by Lee De Forest in 1907 that truly transcontinental telephone communication was possible. In 1915 the first transcontinental line, between New York City and San Francisco, was placed in service. Although this system was commercially viable, its cost and limited capacity (only one two-way circuit) prevented substantial growth of transcontinental telephony until carrier multiplexing techniques were introduced beginning in 1918. With carrier multiplexing, four or more two-way voice channels could be transmitted simultaneously over two-wire or four-wire circuits. By 1927 more than 5 million kilometres of long-distance circuits covered the entire United States—more than 10 times the circuitry present in 1900.
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